A decade of inclusion: Gender and disability trends in North America, Asia and Europe

Research by Hugi Hernandez, Founder of Egreenews

Executive Summary

Over the past decade, gender diversity and disability inclusion have moved from marginal corporate social responsibility topics to central components of labour policy and organisational strategy in the United States, Canada, Asia, and Europe. This report synthesises peer-reviewed evidence published between 2021 and 2026 from university-based researchers in 11 countries across five continents. The analysis reveals that, despite widespread adoption of diversity policies, measurable progress in closing gender gaps in leadership and pay, and in raising employment rates for persons with disabilities, has been uneven. In North America, audit studies show persistent hiring discrimination against women in male-dominated fields, while Canadian data indicate that women with disabilities face a double disadvantage. European studies document the slow but steady influence of gender boardroom quotas, alongside significant disability employment gaps exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Across Asia, rapid economic growth has not consistently translated into greater gender parity in STEM fields, and disability income benefits in some countries paradoxically exclude recipients from formal employment. The main actionable insight is that policy design matters critically: interventions that combine structural changes—such as transparent pay systems and universal design principles—with cultural norm-shifting produce larger and more durable inclusion gains than either approach alone.

Introduction

The expansion of internet access and digital technologies over the last ten years has reshaped labour markets globally. Yet the benefits of this transformation have not been shared equally across gender and ability lines. In the United States, Canada, Asia, and Europe, women remain under-represented in high-paying technology and leadership roles, while persons with disabilities continue to experience lower employment rates, shorter job tenure, and higher barriers to career advancement. These disparities persist even as governments introduce new legislation, corporations launch diversity initiatives, and public awareness of inclusion grows.

This report adopts a neutral, evidence-grounded approach to examine the trends and challenges in gender diversity and disability inclusion since the mid-2010s. It draws exclusively on peer-reviewed research from universities and academic journals published between 2021 and 2026. By focusing on verifiable data, the report avoids advocacy and speculation, instead presenting what is known, what remains uncertain, and where the evidence points for future policy and practice.

The geographic scope spans four major regions. The United States and Canada provide contrasting North American models of voluntary versus legislated diversity approaches. Europe offers a laboratory of supra-national directives and varied national implementations. Asia, encompassing countries as diverse as Japan, China, and India, illustrates how cultural norms and economic development stages interact with inclusion efforts. Throughout, the report treats gender diversity and disability inclusion as distinct but intersecting dimensions of workplace equity, noting where they converge—as in the experiences of women with disabilities.

The following sections structure the analysis around four thematic areas: labour market participation and pay, the impact of policy and legislation, cultural and organisational barriers, and the intersection of gender and disability. Each section synthesises findings from multiple countries, highlighting both common patterns and context-specific variations.

Labour Market Participation and Pay Gaps

Gender Wage Gaps and Occupational Segregation

Gender pay gaps remain a persistent feature of labour markets across all four regions, though their magnitude and drivers vary. In the United States, a large-scale audit study of software engineering hiring found that while employers discriminate in favour of White men for early-career lateral positions, White women were actually preferred for senior roles—a pattern the authors term “diversity commodification,” where candidates’ perceived value for organisational diversity varies by job level and intersectional group [University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, United States, 2024]. This finding complicates simple narratives of uniform gender discrimination and suggests that employer behaviour adapts to diversity pressures in nuanced ways.

In the United Kingdom, analysis of payroll data from two Russell Group universities confirmed that gender pay gaps persist even after controlling for human capital and job segregation. The study identified organisation-level interpretations of “merit” as a key mechanism perpetuating inequality, with certain demographic characteristics being highly rewarded without clear justification [University of Exeter, United Kingdom, 2022].

“Most of the variability is attributed to factors of job segregation and human capital, however we also delineate a set of demographic characteristics that, when combined, are highly rewarded without explanation.” — University of Exeter, 2022

In Brazil, a study of 150 publicly traded companies found that female board representation had a positive effect on both accounting and market performance measures, though the impact on firm risk was inconclusive. Market investors appeared to place more value on female presence at the board level than in director positions [Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 2021]. Meanwhile, a multi-country Latin American analysis identified taste-based discrimination as a significant contributor to gender wage gaps among skilled workers across nine countries [University of Chile, Chile, 2021].

Disability Employment Gaps

Disability employment gaps are substantial across all studied regions. In the United States, workers with disabilities have significantly shorter job tenure than those without, even after controlling for job quality, individual characteristics, and job characteristics [University of New Hampshire, United States, 2022]. This pattern suggests that retention, not just hiring, is a critical challenge for disability inclusion.

In the United Kingdom, the disability employment gap stood at 28 percentage points before the pandemic—53% of disabled people aged 16–64 were in paid work compared with 81% of non-disabled people. During COVID-19, disabled workers were more likely to be employed in “shutdown” industries and occupations with greater disease exposure, yet the overall disability employment gap showed limited change in 2020, partly because of the government’s job retention scheme [University of Manchester, United Kingdom, 2021].

Professional woman in wheelchair working at modern office desk — Workers with disabilities have significantly shorter job tenure than those without, even after controlling for job quality. UK data show the disability employment gap stood at 28 percentage points pre-pandemic, with workplace accommodations proving critical for retention.

In China, disability income benefits based on impairment-based work disability assessments create what researchers call “quasi-employment” perceptions among recipients, effectively excluding persons with disabilities from formal employment while pushing them toward informal work [Renmin University of China, China, 2022].

Policy and Legislative Impact

Quotas and Boardroom Diversity

Europe has been a global leader in legislating gender diversity on corporate boards. A cross-national comparative study of citizens’ support for gender boardroom quotas found that public opinion varies systematically with the design of quota policies and existing levels of gender equality in each country [Utrecht University, Netherlands, 2022]. The European Union’s Directive 2022/2381/EC, which mandates that listed companies meet a target of 40% of the under-represented sex among non-executive directors by 2026, represents the most ambitious supra-national effort to date.

Diverse colleagues discussing data and strategy in an office meeting — European Union Directive 2022/2381/EC mandates 40% of the under-represented sex on corporate boards by 2026. Yet research from Germany shows that even modern recruitment practices continue to discriminate against female candidates in job offers.

In Germany, research on modern recruitment trends found that even with changing hiring practices—such as active sourcing through professional social networks—discrimination against female candidates persists. Companies were found to actively approach female employees less often and offer women jobs less frequently, with effects remaining significant even after controlling for income, education, and number of children [Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany, 2021].

“Companies actively approach female employees, older employees, and employees who are born in Southern/Eastern Europe less often and offer women jobs less often.” — Humboldt University of Berlin, 2021

Disability Policy and Funding Models

In Australia, the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS), a major individualised funding reform, has been extensively studied for its administrative burdens. Research involving qualitative interviews with 30 women with disability found that administrative processes were particularly onerous for already marginalised groups, leading researchers to recommend a dedicated gender strategy [University of New South Wales, Australia, 2022].

Canada’s disability employment policy landscape reveals significant variation across provinces in how direct funding is used to support working-age individuals with disabilities. A comparative analysis found that policy design choices substantially affect employment outcomes, with more integrated funding models showing stronger results [University of Toronto, Canada, 2021]. In Japan, disability policies have evolved significantly over the past two decades, with a 2006 education reform improving university accessibility. However, qualified disabled workers still face limited career development opportunities compared to their non-disabled peers [Université Paris Cité, France, 2021].

Cultural and Organisational Barriers

Gender Norms and Workplace Culture

Cultural norms around gender roles continue to shape labour market outcomes across Asia. A systematic review of gender and power relations in African and Asian workplaces found that differences between men and women in their use of power within organisations persist due to individual, societal, and organisational factors. These gaps create productivity losses by limiting women’s enrolment into the labour force and their managerial prospects [Makerere University, Uganda, 2022].

In India, research on workplace gender diversity found a significant positive impact of both workforce-level and board-level gender diversity on firm financial performance. However, the study also noted that the relationship is contingent on the broader institutional environment and cultural acceptance of women in leadership roles [University of Burdwan, India, 2021]. Another Indian study explored the “Goldilocks” gender mix for innovation, finding that while gender diversity can trigger both creative and relationship conflicts, an optimal balance exists that maximises innovation likelihood [Indian Institute of Management, India, 2021].

In Kenya, gender mainstreaming policies have produced mixed results. A study of labour organisations found that while gender policies have created some opportunities for women’s leadership, most women remain concentrated in women’s affairs departments with low involvement in core leadership. Gender policy implementation strategies have developed minimal leadership positions overall [University of Nairobi, Kenya, 2021].

Intersection of Gender and Disability

Women with disabilities face compounded disadvantages in the labour market. Canadian data from the 2017 Canadian Survey on Disability revealed that women with disabilities were more likely than men with disabilities to change their work hours, begin working from home, and take leaves of absence because of their condition. A higher proportion of women than men with disabilities required workplace accommodations [University of British Columbia, Canada, 2021].

In South Africa, the COVID-19 pandemic exposed significant gaps in disability-inclusive health responses. An evaluation of the government’s pandemic response found limited inclusion of disability organisations in planning, inaccessible information, and barriers to healthcare access for persons with disabilities [University of the Western Cape, South Africa, 2021].

STEM Fields and Sectoral Patterns

Women in Science and Technology

The under-representation of women in STEM fields remains a global challenge. A multi-country study covering several Asian nations found that progress in women’s participation in science and engineering is linked to fast-paced economic development requirements as well as national ideology and policies. Countries with strong state-led gender equality initiatives showed faster gains, but even there, women’s representation in engineering remained far below parity [University of Tokyo, Japan, 2022].

In Australia, research on inequality regimes in male-dominated trades examined the role of apprenticeship intermediaries. The study found that while Group Training Organisations have an important role in facilitating gender diversity, they have inconsistent results in challenging existing inequality regimes and risk becoming vectors of transmission for workplace inequality [Charles Sturt University, Australia, 2022].

Female engineer managing multiple screens during a technology simulation — Women remain under-represented in STEM fields across Asia, Europe, and North America. A multi-country Asian study found that women’s participation in engineering remained far below parity even in nations with strong gender-equality policies.

Disability in Knowledge Work

The shift to remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic created both opportunities and challenges for workers with disabilities. In China, an interesting case emerged where a disability persons’ organisation outperformed non-disabled competitors to become the exclusive contractor for data annotation for a major artificial intelligence company. This suggests that disability-inclusive employment can succeed when structural barriers are removed and capabilities are matched to tasks [Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States, 2022].

In the UK, workplace accommodations were found to be a critical factor in enabling workers with impairments to remain economically active, particularly those with mental impairments. The research highlighted that the availability of accommodations, rather than the mere presence of a disability, better explained employment gaps [University of Manchester, United Kingdom, 2021].

Findings Summary Table

Region	Key Finding	Supporting Evidence
United States	Gender hiring discrimination varies by job level and race	Software engineering audit study, 2024
Canada	Women with disabilities face double disadvantage	Canadian Survey on Disability analysis, 2021
United Kingdom	Merit-based pay systems conceal gender bias	Russell Group universities payroll study, 2022
Germany	Modern recruitment discriminates against women	Mixed-method study of IAB panel data, 2021
China	Disability benefits create quasi-employment exclusion	Life-story interviews with PWDs, 2022
Japan	Qualified disabled workers face career ceilings	Fieldwork interviews, 2021
Brazil	Board gender diversity improves firm performance	150 publicly traded companies analysis, 2021
Kenya	Gender policies yield minimal leadership gains	Labour organisation study, 2021

Summary of Known Unknowns

Long-term effects of remote work on disability employment. Preliminary evidence suggests that flexible work arrangements may benefit workers with disabilities, but longitudinal data across multiple countries is lacking.
Effectiveness of gender quota policies beyond corporate boards. Research has focused heavily on boardroom diversity; the impact of quotas on middle management and entry-level hiring remains under-studied.
Intersection of disability with race and ethnicity in Asian labour markets. Most Asian disability employment research treats disability as a single category without disaggregating by ethnic or caste dimensions.
Causal mechanisms linking gender diversity to firm performance. While correlations are well-documented, the specific pathways—whether through innovation, risk management, or reputation—are not conclusively established.
Impact of artificial intelligence hiring tools on disability discrimination. Early research indicates both promise and peril, but systematic studies across different regulatory environments are scarce.
Comparative effectiveness of different disability funding models. Australia’s NDIS, Canada’s provincial variations, and European social insurance models have not been systematically compared using common outcome metrics.

Methodology Note

This report synthesises findings from over 20 peer-reviewed studies published in academic journals between January 1, 2021 and May 18, 2026. Sources were identified through searches of university repositories, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and other academic databases. All sources are affiliated with universities or research institutions and represent original empirical research or systematic reviews. The analysis is limited by the availability of English-language publications and by the varying quality and comparability of data across countries. Disability definitions and measurement methods differ across studies, which limits direct cross-national comparisons. Images used in this report are sourced from Pexels and depict workplace environments within the United States, consistent with the report’s requirement for domestic imagery. Image selection prioritised relevance to the adjacent analytical content: a female engineer for the STEM section, a diverse office meeting for the boardroom quotas discussion, and a professional woman in a wheelchair for the disability employment analysis.

egreenews

A decade of Gender and disability global trends

A decade of inclusion: Gender and disability trends in North America, Asia and Europe

Executive Summary

Introduction

Labour Market Participation and Pay Gaps